NGWA Conference on Hydrology and Water Scarcity in the Rio Grande Basin: Alphabetical Content Listing
NGWA Conference on Hydrology and Water Scarcity in the Rio Grande Basin: Alphabetical Content Listing
Focus on Middle Rio Grande
Bruce Thomson, Ph.D.
Estimated 2012 Groundwater Potentiometric Surface and Drawdown from Predevelopment, Santa Fe Group Aquifer System
Rachel Powell
Modifications in the demand for water and the source of the supply of water for the Albuquerque metropolitan area has resulted in a variable response in the potentiometric surface of the production zone of the Santa Fe Group aquifer (from about 300 to 1100 feet or more below land surface). Analysis of the magnitude and pattern of the response of the potentiometric surface can help improve understanding of how the groundwater system responds to withdrawals and variations in water supply management. The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Albuquerque Bernalillo County Water Utility Authority, has mapped the estimated potentiometric surface for the winter season (December to March) of water year 2012 and the estimated drawdown between predevelopment and 2012 for the production zone in the Albuquerque and surrounding metropolitan areas. The 2012 potentiometric surface indicates that the general direction of groundwater flow is from the Rio Grande towards clusters of production wells in the north, east, and west. Drawdown is negligible in the southwest where groundwater withdrawals are minimal, and along the Rio Grande where recharge from the river is occurring. Drawdown is largest along the eastern margin (decline of more than 120 ft) and in the northwest (decline of more than 60 ft). Water-level measurements (representative of the potentiometric head in a well) from piezometers on the east side of the river generally indicate an increase in the annual highest water-level measurement from 2008-2012. Water-level measurements from piezometers in the northwest indicate either steady decline over the period of record or variable trends in which water levels increased for a number of years but declined beginning in 2012. Water-level measurements from a piezometer in the southwest indicate average increases of slightly more than 1 foot per year for the period of record.
Evaluating the Resiliency of Existing and Proposed Water-Supply Portfolios Using a Dynamic Simulation Model
David Jordan, PE
The concept of resiliency of water supply in the face of climate change and climate variability is characterized by the robustness of a given supply portfolio in the face of uncertainty. Given recent observed climatic variations such as long periods of drought followed by large amounts of rainfall, we may expect more supply variability in the future. The Albuquerque Bernalillo County Water Utility Authority (Water Authority) supply portfolio includes surface water, groundwater, wastewater reuse and plans for groundwater storage via aquifer storage and recovery. Blending and managing these supply elements by combining, for example, the drought reserve capability of groundwater with the ability to capture and store surface water in times of excess flow are key to maintaining a robust supply with 100% reliability. To evaluate the various management alternatives that may be available, the Water Authority is developing a dynamic simulation model of its resources which include both supply and demand components. The model allows the user to combine various supply and demand management options into “portfolios” allowing comparison and evaluation of an array of options. In addition, the model facilitates short-term forecasting for the purpose of, for example, developing the Water Authority Annual Operating Plan. It also allows evaluation of historical accounting to evaluate past trends and scenarios. Future water demands can be examined through variation of population trends, efficiency, and use categories. These options allow the user to explore different customer profiles and behaviors, and how those may affect demand (and supply) in the future. Additionally, the model includes the ability to evaluate potential effects of climate change on both supply and demand. In summary, the dynamic simulation model provides a robust planning tool for the Water Authority to evaluate plausible future scenarios and their relative resiliency and feasibility.
Stormwater as a Potential Source for Artificial Recharge in the Rio Grande Basin
Stephanie J. Moore
Within the past decade, artificial recharge has become a viable option for water resources management within the State of New Mexico. Because of existing scarcity issues throughout the State and especially within the Rio Grande Basin, several entities are actively pursuing artificial recharge projects. Sources of water for projects currently underway include surface water from the Rio Grande and treated wastewater effluent.
Within the past decade, artificial recharge has become a viable option for water resources management within the state of New Mexico. Because of existing scarcity issues throughout the state and especially within the Rio Grande Basin, several entities are actively pursuing artificial recharge projects. Sources of water for projects currently underway include surface water from the Rio Grande and treated wastewater effluent.
Few (if any) current projects are using stormwater as a source for artificial recharge. This is likely due to a variety of factors. The large spatial and temporal variability in the volume of available stormwater also complicates planning efforts, and large suspended sediment loads can reduce recharge efficacy. Water rights of stormwater runoff are often interpreted as belonging to downstream users; however, increases in stormwater due to urbanization provide additional water beyond the naturally occurring runoff. Moreover, current regulations do not encourage the use of stormwater as a source for artificial recharge (as opposed to regulations in other states).
Despite these complicating issues, stormwater is a valuable resource that could provide substantial volumes of water for artificial recharge, especially during wet years. As scarcity continues to be a driving factor for water resources management in the Rio Grande and throughout the Southwest (and the world), stormwater deserves careful consideration. In addition to functioning as a source for artificial recharge, the appropriate application of stormwater for recharge could help reduce the water quality burden of stormwater on receiving water bodies (the Rio Grande) while increasing surface water base-flow and protecting downstream users’ water rights. In this presentation, we examine opportunities for potential recharge of stormwater in the Rio Grande Basin and provide case studies where stormwater capture and aquifer recharge is being conducted to augment surface water base-flow and protect riparian habitat.
The Trials and Tribulations of Developing a County-Wide Water Level Monitoring Program
Sara Chudnoff, PG
Bernalillo County, located in central New Mexico, encompasses 1160 square miles and has a population of 662,564 (2010 census). The majority of the population resides in Albuquerque and adjacent unincorporated areas in the Rio Grande Valley. Much of that population is served by the local utility, which utilizes surface water and groundwater. To the east are the Sandia and Manzano Mountains, referred to locally as the East Mountain Area (EMA). The population in the EMA relies solely on groundwater, with roughly 53% of the population relying on domestic wells. Water rights in New Mexico are governed by the Office of the State Engineer (OSE) which provides only limited monitoring in the EMA. County personnel began to hear anecdotes from residents and to notice rapid declines in water levels in county wells. In 2010 the county responded by implementing a voluntary domestic water level monitoring program, which increased the number of monitoring points, allowed for better water level tracking, and has saved the county thousands of dollars in monitoring well costs. Ongoing issues include methodology, clustering of volunteer sites, jurisdictional boundaries, and determining the appropriate scope of the program. Since 2010 the program has grown to more than 200 wells that are monitored biannually or quarterly. The program has helped educate residents about the complex hydrologic conditions, the limited groundwater supply, the effect of drought on water levels, and the necessity of ongoing interaction with the OSE. The program is still growing through word of mouth, public awareness, and the media. An internal database has been created to manage the dataset and the county is working towards a publicly accessible e-portal.
Water Rights Administration for Aquifer Replenishment Projects in New Mexico
Robert Marley, M.S. Hydrology
Two of the largest cities in New Mexico, Albuquerque and Rio Rancho, are located in the Middle Rio Grande (MRG) Basin where water supplies are considered to be fully appropriated. Local water providers have consistently identified managed aquifer recharge (MAR) and aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) as important tools to provide conjunctive management of surface water, groundwater, and reclaimed water sources in order to extend the useful life of existing water sources. However, MAR and ASR projects have been slow to take root partly due to rigorous demonstration requirements, groundwater quality protection concerns, and ongoing water right uncertainties. The administration of water rights is implemented through utilization of the MRG Administrative Guidelines established by the New Mexico Office of the State Engineer in September 2000. When these guidelines were promulgated, MAR and ASR projects within Albuquerque and Rio Rancho were not underway, and the management of water rights and water rights administration associated with projects of this nature is not specifically addressed in the guidelines. Changes in surface water return flows and impacts to other water users during recovery of the stored water must be considered. This talk will discuss permitting aspects of MAR and ASR projects as they relate to water rights administration in the MRG Basin and through extension other locations in New Mexico where stream-connected aquifer systems occur.
Focus on Middle Rio Grande (cont.)
Nathan Myers
ABCWUA Aquifer Storage and Recovery
Amy Ewing, P.G.
The Albuquerque Bernalillo County Water Utility Authority (ABCWUA) is implementing aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) projects for conjunctive management of the surface water and groundwater resources using treated San Juan-Chama water diverted from the Rio Grande. The purpose of the project is to recharge the Santa Fe Group aquifer system of the Middle Rio Grande Basin and to recover the water for later use. The ABCWUA implemented a demonstration project using instream infiltration at Bear Canyon. The project included two recharge periods in 2008 and 2009 and was successful, with the New Mexico Office of the State Engineer recognizing an initial storage account of 1073 acre-feet of water. Based on the success of the Bear Canyon demonstration project, the ABCWUA plans to operate the Bear Canyon project on an ongoing basis, and is currently seeking the full-scale permit from the New Mexico Office of the State Engineer for the project. The ABCWUA also plans to develop additional recharge projects, and is currently working on the Large-Scale ASR Project, which will establish a long-term drought reserve using treated surface water from the ABCWUA’s drinking water treatment plant (DWTP). This project includes recharge demonstration using vadose zone and deep injection wells at the DWTP, and retrofit of existing production wells for use as ASR wells. Webster Well 1 was the first production well to be retrofitted, and a brief water quality test was completed using Webster Well 1 during 2013. The ABCWUA is currently seeking a demonstration permit from the New Mexico Office of the State Engineer to operate a longer demonstration project at Webster Well 1. This presentation discusses the ABCWUA ASR projects and future plans.
A Water-Budget Approach to Determine Potential Groundwater Recharge from Two Domestic Sewage Disposal Fields
Jake Collison
From January 2011 to December 2012 the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with Bernalillo County Public Works, used a water-balance approach to estimate the amount of potential groundwater recharge from two domestic sewage disposal fields in Eastern Bernalillo County, New Mexico. Potential groundwater recharge from domestic wastewater (effluent) was estimated as the volume of effluent discharged to the disposal field in excess of the volume of effluent lost to evapotranspiration (ET) from the disposal field. The amount of effluent lost to ET from the disposal field was estimated as the amount of ET loss on the disposal field in excess of the amount of ET loss on the terrain surrounding the disposal field. Penman-Monteith model calculations of ET were calibrated with field measurements of actual ET collected on the disposal field and on the surrounding terrain using a portable hemispherical ET chamber. Results from the two sites indicated that potential groundwater recharge from disposal-field effluent during 2011 to 2012 was 53% to 72% of the volume of effluent entering the disposal field for each site.
Calculating Surface Water and Groundwater Interactions for Water Right Transfers—How Far Do We Go?
Steven T. Finch Jr.
The fundamental concepts for the interaction between surface water and groundwater have been well studied and defined, and used for calculating stream-depletion effects of water-right transfers. The New Mexico Office of the State Engineer has adopted administrative criteria for calculating stream depletion effects of water rights transfers for many of the groundwater basins in New Mexico. Should these methods for calculating stream depletion effects be prescriptive or case-by-case? How do we know the discrepancies between the calculation and reality? What should be considered significant or insignificant? Three case studies are used to explore the answers to these questions: (1) groundwater transfer to surface water on tributary to Rio Grande, (2) new groundwater appropriation in tributary groundwater basin to the Middle Rio Grande, and (3) bulk surface water purchases for offsetting stream depletion from groundwater pumping. In all cases, the assumptions for calculating stream depletion overstate the actual effect and limit the amount of water that can be transferred and reduce the quantity of the water right. Average streamflow conditions and continuous hydraulic connection between surface water and groundwater are some of the assumptions that lead to over-prediction of streamflow depletion. The lack of data also leads to overly conservative analysis. Performing gain-loss measurements on stream and developing a simple monitoring program consisting of stream gauging and water-level monitoring will help marry calculated effects with reality.
Concrete Channel vs. Natural Arroyo—Stormwater Management Strategies and Potential Impacts on Water Resources
Gerhard Schoener
In their original state, watersheds in the Middle Rio Grande area drain stormwater runoff through a network of natural stream channels or arroyos. Historically, flood control strategies focused on the most efficient ways to convey stormwater runoff through populated areas, resulting in the conversion of many arroyos to hard-lined channels. Due to the increasing cost of traditional construction and concerns for the environment, local agencies started to consider stormwater management approaches that preserve arroyos in as natural a state as desirable, taking advantage of naturally high infiltration rates in arroyos and their potentially beneficial effect on water quality and groundwater recharge. The purpose of this study was to explore the potential impact of transmission losses, i.e., infiltration into the arroyo bed as a flood wave moves downstream, on flood hydrographs. A hydrologic model was prepared for a gauged watershed in Sandoval County, New Mexico, and model results were compared to measured flow data. The comparison shows that transmission losses can explain some of the discrepancies between simulated and measured runoff resulting from small storm events. Stormwater management strategies with focus on preservation of natural arroyo systems and potential implications on infiltration and runoff volumes are discussed in the context of increasing urbanization. The increase of impervious coverage in a watershed not only leads to higher runoff volumes for a given storm event, but also increases the frequency of runoff events and thereby the potential importance of transmission losses.
Spatially Explicit Evapotranspiration Mapping for Large Scale Agro-Hydrologic Applications
Gabriel Senay
Evapotranspiration (ET) is one of the major components of the hydrologic cycle. Spatially explicit ET can be used in different applications such as estimating crop consumptive use, drought monitoring, recharged estimation, and understanding basin water balance dynamics. ET can be estimated consistently and reliably using a combination of remote sensed images and weather datasets. The U.S. Geological Survey Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) center has created historical (2000-2013) monthly and annual ET grids at 1 km for the conterminous U.S. using the Operational Simplified Surface Energy Balance approach. A validation of the model estimates using lysimeter and eddy covariance flux tower data sets, and basin scale ET shows the reliability of ET in quantifying year-to-year variability of water use, detecting droughts and understanding water balance dynamics of a basin. Model estimates at a field scale showed improved accuracy (up to 90%) at seasonal time scales compared to monthly estimates due to the minimization of random error components with time-aggregation. The increasing availability of global datasets from model-assimilated weather stations and remote sensing creates an unprecedented opportunity to conduct hydrologic investigations around the world at multiple spatial scales.
Streamflow Conditions and Annual Availability for Streams of the San Juan–Chama Project, Southern Colorado
Sarah E. Falk, MSE in Civil Engineering
The Albuquerque–Bernalillo County Water Utility Authority (ABCWUA) supplements the municipal water supply for the Albuquerque metropolitan area with water diverted from the Rio Grande that is derived from the San Juan–Chama Project (SJCP). The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with ABCWUA, has compiled historical streamflow to characterize streamflow conditions and annual flow variability of three streams within the SJCP. Nonparametric statistical methods were applied to calculate summary statistics of streamflow and trends in streamflow conditions. The study area included the Rio Blanco, Little Navajo River, and Navajo River. The variability in seasonal distribution of streamflow was more strongly controlled by the variability in the total annual discharge than by long-term trends in streamflow. Streamflow indicators, including the date of the start of snowmelt-derived runoff, the date of selected percentiles of annual discharge, and the center of mass of the annual discharge, occurred at later dates in years with higher annual discharge. In general, years with higher annual discharge had a smaller percentage of annual discharge in March, a larger percentage of annual discharge in June, and a larger monthly discharge in June compared to years with reduced annual discharge. Additionally, snowmelt-derived runoff occurred later in the year and had a longer duration in years with higher annual discharge. Streamflow conditions at the Navajo River varied nonmonotonically over time and were likely a function of complex climate pattern interactions. Streamflow conditions at the Navajo River varied over time such that annual discharge was generally lower than the median during a negative Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) interval and higher than the median during a positive PDO. Study results indicated that the median of the sum of the streamflow available above the minimum monthly bypass requirement for the SJCP from 1975 to 2010 for the three streams within the SJCP was 126,240 acre-feet.
Focus on Upper and Lower Basins, Espanola, and Mesilla
William M. Alley, Ph.D.
Administration of Surface Water and Groundwater Within Colorado with the Assistance of Modeling Part 1
James Heath, P.E.
The implementation of groundwater administration for the Rio Grande basin within Colorado has been an ongoing and complicated effort. Starting in 1969, the State Engineer was given authority to administer groundwater use throughout the state. Early efforts to promulgate groundwater rules and regulations within Division 3 (Rio Grande basin) were not successful. Subsequent projects were implemented to provide water supplies to mitigate the effects of groundwater use (Closed Basin Project) and to collect data and build tools to better understand the impacts of groundwater use within the basin (Rio Grande Decision Support System). The severe drought of 2002 prompted the Colorado Legislature to renew the efforts of the State Engineer to promulgate groundwater rules and regulations and administer groundwater use within Division 3 (Senate Bill 04-222). The State Engineer’s efforts to administer groundwater use in Division 3 include promulgation of Confined Aquifer New Use Rules (2004), Water Measurement Rules (2005), and Ground Water Use Rules (to be promulgated in 2014). The upcoming Ground Water Use Rules will provide guidance on the quantification of stream depletions, define aquifer sustainability, and provide the ability for community-based approaches to replace stream depletions and maintain aquifer sustainability through the formation of subdistricts. The complex hydrogeologic aquifer-stream system within Division 3 required a system of models to be created, including a MODFLOW model, to quantify stream depletions from groundwater operations. The existing court decrees and the proposed rules and regulations require that the modeling be updated and enhanced as new data becomes available. Recent efforts include the incorporation of metered pumping records, refinement of the hydrogeology based on field investigations, and the incorporation of a monthly transient calibration process to accurately simulate observed data within small drainage basins within Division 3.
Administration of Surface Water and Groundwater Within Colorado with the Assistance of Modeling Part 2
Willem A. Schreuder, Ph.D.
The implementation of groundwater administration for the Rio Grande basin within Colorado has been an ongoing and complicated effort. Starting in 1969, the State Engineer was given authority to administer groundwater use throughout the state. Early efforts to promulgate groundwater rules and regulations within Division 3 (Rio Grande basin) were not successful. Subsequent projects were implemented to provide water supplies to mitigate the effects of groundwater use (Closed Basin Project) and to collect data and build tools to better understand the impacts of groundwater use within the basin (Rio Grande Decision Support System). The severe drought of 2002 prompted the Colorado Legislature to renew the efforts of the State Engineer to promulgate groundwater rules and regulations and administer groundwater use within Division 3 (Senate Bill 04-222). The State Engineer’s efforts to administer groundwater use in Division 3 include promulgation of Confined Aquifer New Use Rules (2004), Water Measurement Rules (2005), and Ground Water Use Rules (to be promulgated in 2014). The upcoming Ground Water Use Rules will provide guidance on the quantification of stream depletions, define aquifer sustainability, and provide the ability for community-based approaches to replace stream depletions and maintain aquifer sustainability through the formation of subdistricts. The complex hydrogeologic aquifer-stream system within Division 3 required a system of models to be created, including a MODFLOW model, to quantify stream depletions from groundwater operations. The existing court decrees and the proposed rules and regulations require that the modeling be updated and enhanced as new data becomes available. Recent efforts include the incorporation of metered pumping records, refinement of the hydrogeology based on field investigations, and the incorporation of a monthly transient calibration process to accurately simulate observed data within small drainage basins within Division 3.
Potential Correlations of Historical Otowi Gage Sediment and Water Flows to Upstream Groundwater Management Practices
Michael Wallace, MS. Ph. D. Candidate
The Otowi Gage along the Rio Grande in north-central New Mexico has been in continuous operation since 1895 and sediment transport has been monitored there since 1955. This streamflow record has been relied upon by the Rio Grande Compact signatories Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas as an interstate water administration decision metric since the 1940s. As with most western water courses, the highs and lows of sediment discharge have tracked closely with the highs and lows of water discharge past the gage over the extended period of co-measurement. However, an anomalous pattern of low sediment loads was reported at the Otowi Gage in the 1980s, even as monthly streamflow readings were historically high over that same decade. This paper combs through the primary data sets in an independent evaluation of the pattern. Among other historical sources, we review the San Juan Chama diversion project and the nearby groundwater augmentation program known as the San Luis Valley Project, in the Upper Rio Grande watershed, both which came online near the beginning of the 1980s. Following a hydrography review of the Upper Rio Grande above Otowi, we proceed to explore the underlying aquifer basins via literature sources. From that information baseline, we develop first-order correlation and spectral processing of the Otowi Gage time series data. We work from interpretations of those time series to produce a simplified set of coupled groundwater, surface water, and sediment flow realizations through our customized version of the Hydrological Simulation Program. We discuss our results in relation to other conceptual models, and we close with perspectives of future information development which may help in the continual challenge to address related questions of groundwater flows, surface water flows, and sediment transport faced by contemporary water resource managers.
Simulation of Aquifer System in Part of the Española Basin, New Mexico
Dave Romero
Development of three-dimensional numerical models of groundwater flow in part of the Española Basin, New Mexico, has utility for local and regional water supply assessments. The principal aquifer system of the modeled area consists of the Santa Fe Group. The primary water-bearing formations are the Tesuque Formation and the Los Alamos area main aquifer. The Tesuque Formation consists of interbedded deposits of sediments with contrasting permeability. The dip of the beds creates a preferential pathway for groundwater flow. That condition creates steep hydraulic gradients (50 to more than 100 feet per mile) where the movement of water is across, rather than parallel to, the strike of the dipping beds. Model analyses indicate that the dipping bed structure of the aquifer system significantly affects the groundwater flow system and its interconnection with surface water of the Rio Grande and its tributaries. Model analyses are presented with MODFLOW-2005 and MODFLOW-USG.
The Aamodt Litigation Settlement Act, signed into law on December 8, 2010 (Public Law 111-291, 124 STAT. 3134) provides for settlement of water rights claims in the Pojoaque basin, which is located within the Española Basin. The act allows for the annual diversion of up to 4000 acre feet per year from the Rio Grande and the construction of a regional water system to treat and distribute the water to residents of the basin. Options under consideration for development of the water system include alternatives for diversion of water from the Rio Grande and potential water management with aquifer storage and recovery. Models such as those presented here provide a means to understand and quantify the estimated area of hydrologic effect, which is necessary under general provisions of the New Mexico Groundwater Storage and Recovery Act (Title 19, Chapter 25, Part 8).
Structure of Groundwater Flow in the Espanola Basin Near Rio Grande and Buckman Wellfield
Velimir Vesselinov
Groundwater within the Espanola basin occurs within a complex hydrogeological system. Groundwater within the basin extends beneath Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) and interacts with surface water (e.g., Rio Grande, Pojoaque River). Based on water-level data, the general direction of the groundwater flow within the portion of the aquifer beneath LANL is generally from west to east; the general flow direction on the east side of Rio Grande is predominantly from east to west. West of Rio Grande, the large-scale flow direction is controlled by areas of aquifer recharge to the west (the flanks of Sierra de los Valles and the Pajarito fault zone) and discharge to the east (the Rio Grande and the White Rock Canyon Springs). East of Rio Grande, the aquifer is recharge predominantly along the Sangre de Cristo mountains. The Buckman wellfield is located just east of the Rio Grande in the central portion of the Espanola basin. Understanding of the interaction of groundwater beneath LANL with the Rio Grande and groundwater within the Buckman wellfield is provided by multiple lines of evidence, including (1) basin geology and hydrostratigraphy, (2) hydrogeologic data (pre- and post- development water levels, pumping drawdowns, spring-discharge rates, etc.), (3) ground-surface subsidence, (4) groundwater geochemistry, and (5) naturally occurring stable isotopes. Analyses of these data suggest that the deep groundwater pumped at the Buckman wellfield is in relatively poor hydraulic connection with the Rio Grande and with groundwater in the aquifer beneath LANL. These conclusions can be explained by the pronounced westward-dipping stratification of the Santa Fe Group sediments near the Buckman wellfield which causes the regional aquifer to be highly anisotropic and under confined (artesian during pre-development) conditions. The aquifer properties appear to limit hydrologic connection between groundwater in the regional aquifer beneath LANL and deep groundwater produced in the Buckman wellfield.
Focus on Upper and Lower Basins, Espanola, and Mesilla (cont.)
William M. Alley, Ph.D.
Development of a Water Resource Forecasting Tool for the Black River Basin, New Mexico
Todd Carlin
Alterations in land use, and more recently the impacts of climate change, are understood to be influential factors affecting both water supply and demand in the arid southwest. Due to its ecological importance and hydrological characteristics, the Black River Basin in southeastern New Mexico provides a unique setting to test and quantify such effects. Originating in the Guadalupe Mountains, the Black River is a spring-fed tributary to the Pecos River—their confluence just a few miles upstream of where the Pecos flows into Texas. The Black River contains key aquatic species of concern, such as the Texas hornshell mussel (Popenaias popeii), whose populations have become confined to the Black River. The basin is underlain by productive karst and alluvial aquifers that are the primary sources of water for local farming and industry. Many irrigators have turned to selling groundwater formerly used for agriculture to oil and gas extractors, raising concerns about diminished return flows to the aquifer. This study examines the effects of changes in groundwater use on the flow of the Black River in order to inform effective and innovative management solutions. The Water Evaluation and Planning model (developed by the Stockholm Environment Institute) was used to simulate basin conditions and develop supply estimates under various demand and climate change scenarios. Flow measurements from source springs and river gages determined water supply, while records of groundwater pumping and surface diversions were used to determine water demand. Data availability and reliability constrained calibration of the initial model to a 10-year period. The model parameters were adjusted to reflect scenarios that depict potential policy and market-based management strategies, including land use changes, while also considering a range of climate change scenarios.
Hydrochemistry of the White Rock Canyon Springs and Rio Grande, New Mexico
Patrick Longmire, PhD
Thirty-six springs located in White Rock Canyon (WRC) represent significant discharge zones for the deep vadose zone and upper portions of the regional aquifer beneath the Pajarito Plateau, New Mexico. Based on results of stable isotope analyses (δ18O and δ2H), recharge to the WRC springs occurs within the Sierra de los Valles and along canyon bottoms within several watersheds dissecting the Pajarito Plateau. The majority of springs in WRC discharge immediately west of the Rio Grande, with three springs discharging near the east bank of the river. The springs vary in flow ranging from less than one to 900 L/min, discharging from sedimentary (Chamita Formation), volcanic (Cerros del Rio basalt) and volcanoclastic (Puye Formation) aquifers. An estimated total discharge for the WRC springs west of the Rio Grande is 2940 m3/day. Unadjusted carbon-14 ages for the WRC springs range from 2100 to 9700 years before present and decrease in age from north to south, representing groundwater-flow paths of variable length. Results of tritium/helium dating suggest that groundwater-flow paths leading to the WRC springs are controlled by complex lithological and hydraulic properties of the vadose zone and regional aquifer. Groundwater sampled from the WRC springs is characterized by sodium-calcium-bicarbonate, calcium-sodium-bicarbonate, and mix cation-anion compositions with concentrations of TDS ranging from 171 to 476 mg/L. The three WRC springs discharging east of the Rio Grande contain higher concentrations of natural solutes, including bicarbonate, sodium, calcium, and uranium, which represent discharge zones for deep groundwater flow originating from the Sangre de Cristo Mountains. Several of the WRC springs contain elevated above background concentrations of tracers, including chloride, nitrate, perchlorate, tritium, and uranium derived from industrial and municipal sewage outfalls and deicing salt. Monitoring of the WRC springs provides data essential for evaluating long-term sustainability and contaminant vulnerability of the regional aquifer.
Refined Hydrologic Simulation Model: Rincon and Mesilla Basins in New Mexico, Texas, and Northern Mexico
Randall Hanson, Ms in Hydrology
The Rincon and Mesilla Basins in New Mexico, Texas, and northern Mexico comprise a complex hydrologic system characterized by transboundary conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater. This conjunctive use takes place under a myriad of legal constraints, including an international treaty, an interstate compact (the Rio Grande Compact), and a federal water project (the Rio Grande Project). New demands are being placed on the basins’ water resources and infrastructure, while an extended drought is contributing to diminished supplies within the basins. The resulting gap between supply and demand is exacerbating conflicts over water in the region. Analysis of water supply and uses within these basins requires an integrated hydrologic model capable of representing complex interactions between groundwater and surface water in both space and time within the contexts of changing land and water uses and hydroclimatic variability and change. The U.S. Geological Survey and U.S. Bureau of Reclamation are collaborating to develop an updated and expanded hydrologic model of the region. The objective of the model is to improve the understanding of the hydrology of the basins with respect to the effects of overlapping cones of depression formed by wellfields in New Mexico, Texas, and Mexico; groundwater-surface water interactions, including interaction between Rio Grande Project surface water operations and groundwater recharge and use within the basin; effects of changing land and water use practices on basin hydrology, including effects of changes in cropping and irrigation practices; and sources and movement of saline waters within the groundwater system. The refined model, based on the MODFLOW One-Water Integrated Hydrologic Model (MF-OWHM), will be an integrated tool for assessing the variety of water uses and the surface water–groundwater interactions in this complex region. Work is ongoing to complete development of the conceptual model and construction of the hydrologic model using MF-OWHM.
Role of the Devils River Watershed in Recharging the Lower Rio Grande
Ronald Green
The water budget of the Lower Rio Grande has a complex myriad of water inputs and extractions. For example, approximately 10% of the water that feeds the Lower Rio Grande originates in the Devils River watershed. Recent work suggests that these recharge waters are conveyed over long distances in the Devils River watershed, first as groundwater and eventually as surface water along narrow flow paths that mirror stream and river channels. This hydraulic phenomenon is evidenced by large irrigation wells far upstream in the channel of Devils River. These narrow flow paths allow for efficient extraction by large-capacity wells; however, any water removed from these flow paths by pumping reduces water that would otherwise continue to flow downstream and recharge the Rio Grande. There are potential plans by private and public entities to export groundwater from the Devils River watershed for use elsewhere in urban centers (i.e., San Antonio, San Angelo). It is clear from the hydraulic interdependency described above that removal of water from the Devils River watershed, as either surface water or groundwater, will decrease the amount of water recharged to the Lower Rio Grande by a like amount.
Water Use and Conservation Potential for Domestic Wells in the Española Basin
Amy Lewis, P.G., M.S.
Results of a Bureau of Reclamation and the Española Basin Regional Issues Forum–funded GIS-based water resource inventory of the Española Basin reveals the actual water use by domestic wells and the potential for water savings. Self-supplied domestic wells are wells serving one to several households permitted under New Mexico Statute 72-12-1. Approximately 8200 wells are permitted and contain information in OSE WATERS database in the Española Basin. Of these wells, about 500 wells are metered and about 70 of the wells identify the specific houses served. Based on our analysis of the meter records, annual water pumping ranges from 0.03 to 1.6 acre-feet per year (ac-ft/yr) per house with a median of 0.26 ac-ft/yr per home. Using the 2010 census for the average household size per block group to estimate the population for each house, the median per capita demand is 0.12 ac-ft/yr (110 gallons per capita per day). The total estimated diversion from the self-supplied wells is 5700 ac-ft/yr or 22% of the total diversions in the region for municipal, commercial, and residential uses. The amount of water that would be needed for each of these homes was estimated by digitizing the landscaping using aerial photography and calculating water needed for a conserving and non-conserving household. The results showed that if conservation techniques were applied (inside and out) and buffalo grass were used for the same area of landscaping, the water use would be 0.07 ac-ft/yr per person, and if non-conserving techniques were applied the median use would be 0.17 ac-ft/yr. An estimated 43,000 people are supplied by domestic wells in the Española Basin, thus with an average savings of 0.05 ac-ft/yr per person, savings for this water sector could be about 1900 ac-ft/yr or 7.5% of the total M&I diversions for the region.
Panel: Managing Water Resources in Times of Drought
John M. Stomp III, P.E.
The Rio Grande and Its Interconnected Groundwater
Daniel B. Stephens, Ph.D., PG
Upper Rio Grande Impact Assessment
Dagmar Llewellyn
Reclamation, in cooperation with Sandia Laboratories and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, has released the Upper Rio Grande Impact Assessment, an investigation of the current and potential future hydrologic impacts of climate change in the Upper Rio Grande Basin of Colorado and New Mexico. The study presents a detailed evaluation of the past, current, and future climate, hydrology, and water operations, and uses a suite of modeling tools, along with reasonable assumptions about future drivers of climatic changes, to project potential impacts associated with climate change on streamflow, water demand, and water operations. The report documents that, over the period 1971 through 2011, average temperatures in the Upper Rio Grande Basin have risen at just under 0.7°F per decade, approximately double the global rate. This study projects that temperatures will continue to rise, with a projected average temperature increase of 4°F to 6°F by 2100. Although modeling projects that total annual average precipitation in the basin will not change considerably, it projects that there will be changes in magnitude, timing, and variability of precipitation and river inflows. The study projects an overall decrease in water availability, with native Rio Grande supplies projected to decrease by an average of one-third, and imported San Juan-Chama Project supplies projected to decrease by an average of one-quarter. The model simulations consistently project decreasing snowpack, an earlier and smaller spring snowmelt runoff, and an increase in the frequency, intensity, and duration of both droughts and floods.
The Rio Grande and Its Interconnected Groundwater (cont.)
William M. Alley, Ph.D.
Managed Aquifer Recharge: Lessons Learned in Southern California
Theodore A. Johnson, PG, CHG
For over 75 years, the Central and West Coast Groundwater Basins in southern California have practiced managed aquifer recharge (MAR) to overcome serious overdraft that had led to plunging groundwater levels, depletion of supply, drying up of wells, and seawater intrusion. Over time, the various MAR activities implemented by numerous agencies to combat the overdraft included the construction and operation of a thousand acres of spreading grounds to capture and infiltrate stormwater, urban runoff, imported water, and recycled water, construction of nearly 300 injection wells along 16-miles of coastline to form a hydraulic ridge as a barrier to seawater intrusion, and an “In-Lieu” program to reduce pumping. Since the formation of the Water Replenishment District of Southern California (WRD) in 1959, nearly 9.5 million acre-feet of water has been returned to the aquifers under MAR programs to maintain balance in the groundwater basins. Over this time frame, lessons have been learned at all three MAR operations which have led to improvements in recharge activities. The history of MAR operations in the Central and West Coast Basins, along with the lessons learned, will be discussed at the conference.
The Pecos River in New Mexico: Lessons for the Rio Grande (or Not?)
Greg Lewis
The Pecos River in New Mexico has a long and storied (and contentious) history extending over 100 years. Although small in flow volume, the Pecos embodies the management challenges faced on many larger western rivers, including: (1) interstate compact water delivery requirements, (2) junior groundwater pumping depleting downstream senior surface water supplies, (3) endangered species issues requiring substantial changes in water management practices, and (4) uncertain, but likely reduced, future water supplies due to climate change. Owing to its long history of legal, political, and hydrologic challenges, the Pecos is arguably the most administratively mature river in New Mexico. In the late 1980s, after losing to Texas in the U.S. Supreme Court over compliance with the 1948 Pecos Compact, New Mexico no longer had the option of under-delivering water to Texas. Out of contention comes innovation, and in 2003 the Pecos Settlement was entered between the Pecos Basin’s principal water management entities. Implemented in 2009 at a taxpayer cost of roughly $100 million, the settlement was intended to ensure New Mexico’s long-term compliance with the Pecos Compact, to result in an increased and more reliable water supply to senior surface-water irrigators, and help bring the Pecos Basin into hydrologic balance. The settlement’s implementation coincident with the onset of New Mexico’s drought of record made compliance with all of the settlement’s terms, and expectations, unachievable. Accordingly, the contention, while somewhat muted, continues. Unique hydrologic, economic, and political factors combined to allow creation and implementation of the Pecos Settlement. While imperfect, it has averted the catastrophe looming on the horizon. But are the lessons from the Pecos portable? Can aspects of the Pecos Settlement provide a model for looming scarcity issues on the Rio Grande’s main stem? Like all water management issues, “it’s complicated.”
The Rio Grande and Its Interconnected Groundwater (cont.)
Bruce Thomson, Ph.D.
Current and Future Challenges to Water Management in the San Luis Valley
Steven Vandiver
As we go thought the cycle of hydrologic changes in the Rio Grande Basin, it presents significant challenges to water users of all kinds, administrators, environmental needs and human kind in general. At present we are well into a significant downturn in the water supply available for all uses in the basin, including the San Luis Valley in Colorado. Since we have developed our uses in the entire basin in relatively good times as far as water availability is concerned, it is particularly difficult to par back our use in times when our supply is drastically reduced from the lack of precipitation. On an annual basis, a less than normal year can be dealt with fairly easily, but sustained and consecutive low water years present significant challenges to the entire basin. Since in many instances our water supply from both surface and groundwater sources is inextricably linked, it can present great difficulty in keeping even our most important demands met. Dealing with this downturn is painful for all.
In the San Luis Valley the groundwater users have initiated a new plan to curtail pumping within defined areas to attempt to live within their means. This has come through voluntary cutbacks, purchase of farms and permanently retiring the associated water rights, and financial incentives from Groundwater Management Subdistricts who are charging well owners a fee to pump to create a revenue stream to reduce pumping. In some areas the use of Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program funds are used to provide additional funds to retire ground. All this is being done in an effort to balance the future uses with the water supply available. This effort is all locally driven and administered under state statute and closely monitored by the State Engineer. This effort is attempting to head off strict groundwater administration by the SEO, and provide a much more flexible alternative than provided by groundwater use rules being promulgated by him.
New Mexico Water Administration: Where Is It Going and How Can We Avoid Getting There?
Fred M. Phillips
The past decade has shown that New Mexico is now living on the margins of its water budget. Farmers have received inadequate supplies of irrigation water and municipalities are forced to continue depleting groundwater. Water reserves in reservoirs are almost non-existent. Science informs us that this situation is, on average, only going to get worse as the climate warms and also probably dries. Population growth will exacerbate these problems. Continuation of current policy will inevitably result in a lifeless Rio Grande that serves only as an occasional water conduit, conversion of most farmland into low-density housing, and very large, very dry cities. Water in New Mexico is administered under a largely fictional legal system. The legal instrument for implementing prior appropriation is priority administration, but in the middle and lower Rio Grande, at least, it is never used. The doctrine appears both unjust and unworkable to the modern population of New Mexico. Unlike most western states, New Mexico does not recognize instream flow as a beneficial use, but in reality is forced to implement it, not under state law but rather under the Endangered Species Act. New Mexico can either continue to blunder forward into a rapidly changing future while wearing the “emperor’s clothes” of a 19th century water code, or it can establish an adaptable new system through revision of the laws. Desirable elements of a new water law would include (1) primacy of the principle that water is a public resource, (2) recognition that water is New Mexico’s limiting resource and that water laws should reflect societal goals, (3) allocation of water to meet those goals, and (4) administration of water on the basis of publicly negotiated and flexible local agreements.
Overview of Groundwater Quality in the Rio Grande Aquifer System
Laura Bexfield
Groundwater historically has been the primary source of drinking water for communities and households throughout the Rio Grande Basin. Although the direct use of surface water for municipal water supply has been increasing in the basin, the limited availability of surface-water resources necessitates that groundwater will continue to be an important primary or secondary source of drinking water for many residents. In parts of several basin-fill aquifers of the Rio Grande aquifer system, concentrations of constituents with geologic sources, such as arsenic and dissolved solids, are high enough to limit the availability of groundwater that is suitable for drinking without treatment. Human-related contaminants, such as nitrate and volatile organic compounds, have been detected not only in shallow groundwater, but also in groundwater at depths used for domestic or public supply. Groundwater quality can be influenced by changes to the hydrologic system that result from development of water resources for agricultural and urban uses, such as increased groundwater withdrawals and increased recharge from the infiltration of excess irrigation water applied to crops and lawns. The National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program of the U.S. Geological Survey has developed conceptual models of important natural and human-related factors influencing groundwater quality of basin-fill aquifers in the Rio Grande aquifer system and across the southwestern U.S. Statistical models also have been created to estimate concentrations of arsenic and nitrate in groundwater of basins in the southwestern U.S. These conceptual and statistical models are intended to help the public understand where contaminants are likely to occur, assist water managers in assessing the potential effects of various basin-development scenarios on groundwater quality, and aid water suppliers in prioritizing areas for new groundwater development.
Simulating the Rio Grande Surface Water Flow System in the Upper Rio Grande Basin
Nabil G. Shafike, Ph.D.
The Rio Grande originates in the San Juan Mountains of southern Colorado and travels through Colorado, New Mexico and along the United States border in Texas to the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of about 1,900 miles. Its watershed covers about 182,000 square miles and its major tributaries are Conejos River, Rio Chama, Rio Jemez, Rio Puerco, Rio Salado, Pecos River and Rio Conchos. Spring snow melt runoff and monsoon flow are the primary sources of water to the river. Another source of water, known as San Juan Chama Project water, is diverted from the San Juan basin in Colorado through tunnels to the Rio Grande Basin and the Rio Chama in New Mexico. The river flow provides water for multiple uses, including cities, irrigated agriculture, recreation, and the riverine ecosystem. The Rio Grande flow system is controlled by a series of reservoirs on the main stem and its tributaries which are managed by different agencies for multiple purposes. Over the past 10-12 years, the water management agencies have worked collaboratively to develop and implement a comprehensive model for river and reservoir water operations. The model, known as URGWOM (Upper Rio Grande Water Operations Model) links inflows and reservoir operations to downstream demand for the Rio Grande and its main tributaries from Del Norte, Colorado to Fort Quitman, Texas. It simulates river routing, river gain/loss, reservoir storage and release, flood control operations, diversions, crop consumption, return flow, riparian ET, and open water evaporation as well as the shallow groundwater system and its interaction with deep aquifer. In addition to simulating the physical system, URGWOM contains rules for water accounting and legal constraints such as reservoir authorizations and the Rio Grande Compact. URGWOM is currently used to prepare the Middle Rio Grande basin annual operating plan, water accounting for Rio Grande compact purposes, daily reservoir operations in New Mexico upstream of Elephant Butte Reservoir, and for basin planning studies. This presentation provides an overview of Upper Rio Grande hydrologic system and its representation in URGWOM.
Water Quality in Basin-Fill Aquifers of the Rio Grande Rift, Northern New Mexico
Peggy Johnson
In northern New Mexico, the Rio Grande rift is a distinct physiographic feature that forms a chain of broad alluvial valleys, including the San Luis and Española valleys, through which the Rio Grande flows. The valleys are underlain by a series of offset, asymmetric structural basins that contain the region’s major aquifers. These basin-fill aquifers represent hydrogeologic settings with unique groundwater-flow and water-quality characteristics. In this area, rift valleys are bounded by large mountain uplifts (the Sangre de Cristo, Jemez, and Tusas Mountains) and have deep alluvial basins filled with hundreds to thousands of meters of alluvium and volcanic rocks and sediments. Large, complex fault systems and buried horst-graben structures partition aquifers and can create hydrologic discontinuities and foci for upward flow of warm (or hot) mineralized groundwater that mixes in the shallow meteoric system. Up-flow is particularly common where groundwater flows east-west across north-trending rift structures. In this setting, water quality characteristics can vary widely and unexpectedly. Examples from the Santa Fe and Peñasco embayments (southern Española basin) and the Taos area (southern San Luis basin) demonstrate water quality degradation in shallow aquifers associated with deeply circulating groundwater and up-flow of fluids along faults. Groundwater discharge temperature, stable isotopes (18O/16O and 2H/H), ion concentration (Na, Cl, SO4, TDS), and trace element chemistry (Li-to-B ratio) are used to distinguish shallow and deep sources. Elevated concentrations of undesirable constituents (As, F, and U) occur in the vicinity of major faults—particularly horst-bounding faults—and tend to increase with depth or concentrate in specific depth horizons. As constraints on surface and shallow water sources force broader exploration and greater drill depths, naturally impaired water quality will become an important consideration during groundwater development in rift-basin aquifers.
The Rio Grande and Its Interconnected Groundwater (cont.)
Laura Bexfield
Meeting the Challenge for Compliant Water Quality for Albuquerque Bernalillo County Water Utility Authority Customers
Barbara Gastian
More than 95 groundwater wells in the Santa Fe Group Aquifer combine with water produced by the San Juan-Chama Drinking Water Project to produce about 33 billion gallons of drinking water to supply Water Authority customers every year. It is the Water Authority’s responsibility to assure the drinking water supply complies with all Safe Drinking Act Maximum Contaminant Levels. Multiple water supply sources of varying water qualities present unique challenges for production and distribution. While wells in different parts of the aquifer produce similar water qualities, each well demonstrates characteristic trends in water quality, which may vary over time and with the duration of each pumping event. Although the quality of water produced by the San Juan-Chama Drinking Water Project drinking water plant varies little, the availability of the supply source may vary seasonally. The Water Authority must be prepared to operate the water system as a groundwater supply, as a surface water supply, or as a combined groundwater-surface water supply.
To meet the regulatory challenge, the water quality of the water supply sources are routinely monitored. Demonstrated water quality trends are used to maximize the flexibility of the water supply system to produce, blend, and distribute a regulatory compliant water supply, whatever the combination of supply sources.
This presentation will provide an overview of the water quality of the sources, a description of how the water system works, and demonstrate methods used to produce, blend, and distribute a water supply that reliably complies with all drinking water regulatory standards.
New Mexico Water Resources Research Institute–Supported Hydrogeologic Studies in the Binational Mesilla Basin
John Hawley
Our review of hydrogeologic research in the binational Mesilla Basin/Rio Grande Valley area of New Mexico, western Texas, and Chihuahua (Mexico) emphasizes the seminal role the New Mexico Water Resources Research Institute (WRRI) at New Mexico State University played in supporting a wide variety of water-resources studies at universities of the upper Rio Grande basin region. Establishment of the WRRI and similar university-based programs throughout the USA in 1964 represents a major advancement in water-science that is particularly relevant to studies of groundwater and surface-water systems in arid-semiarid intermontane basins of the American West. While many federal and state governmental agencies and some universities had well-established water-resource programs, no formal effort had previously been made to promote well-coordinated/financed research programs at state universities. The WRRI-institutional structure was designed to (1) stimulate and support water research at faculty-directed, graduate-student levels, and (2) provide administrative and technical support for funding acquisition and allocation, and project-completion report preparation. Major structural and hydrostratigraphic components of the Mesilla Basin aquifer systems are Rio Grande rift-fault zones, Late Cenozoic Santa Group basin fill, and Rio Grande fluvial deposits in the Mesilla Valley. Basin surface area is about 2850 km2, and maximum aquifer-system thickness (including ancestral-river deposits) is 600 m. The Mesilla Valley floor located near the eastern basin border is the sole source of significant groundwater recharge. The Rio Grande exits the valley through El Paso del Norte in the northwestern part of the El Paso/Ciudad Juárez metro area (population about 2 million). Less than 20% of the basin is in Mexico (northern 15% of Chihuahua’s Conejos-Médanos groundwater administrative district) where freshwater aquifers are less than 100 m thick. We conclude our presentation with a brief review of WRRI-supported hydrogeologic research in the Mesilla Basin area. Emphasis is on university graduate-level research, and collaboration with supporting governmental agencies.
Rio Grande Surface Water Quality: Dirt, Germs, and Salt
James Hogan
The Rio Grande is a critical resource for both the United States and Mexico in terms of industry, agriculture, domestic and public water supply, recreation, and wildlife habitat. However, along its journey, factors such as high salt content and sediment loads, inconsistent water flow, and inputs of various other pollutants such as nutrients and E. coli can limit the use of the Rio Grande for both human and aquatic life. These water quality challenges arise from both “natural” stressors, such as climate variability and geologic sources of salinization, and “human” stressors, such as bacterial and nutrient contamination from urban stormwater, agricultural return flows, and wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), altered hydrology, and increasing/changing water demands. This presentation will provide an overview of three of the most significant surface water quality challenges for the Rio Grande in New Mexico—salinization, nutrients, and E. coli. The present-day system will be contrasted with the pre-development system, with the present day to help inform how the stressors mentioned above impact the Rio Grande, providing context for these challenges. Current efforts to address these issues will also be discussed.
U.S.-Mexico Transboundary Aquifer Assessment Program
Ari Michelsen, Ph.D.
The United States and Mexico share transboundary aquifers along the border. These transboundary aquifers are an essential and in many cases the only source of water for border communities. Declining water levels, deteriorating quality, and increasing use of groundwater resources by municipal and other water users on both sides of the international border have raised serious concerns about long-term availability of this supply. Water quantity and quality are determining and limiting factors that ultimately control future economic development, population growth, and human health along the border. However, knowledge about the extent, depletion rates, quality, and solute movement of transboundary aquifers is inadequate and in some areas completely absent. Binational and multi-state collaboration is needed to develop new, reliable, and comprehensive information on these critical aquifers. The purpose of the U.S.-Mexico Transboundary Aquifer Assessment Program, under Public Law 109-448, is to conduct binational scientific research to systematically assess priority transboundary aquifers. This program has developed binational cooperation and is providing essential new information and a scientific foundation for state and local officials to address pressing water resource challenges in the U.S.-Mexico border region and Rio Grande Basin. Investigations have been conducted in partnership with the U.S. Geological Survey and border Water Resources Research Institutes and in collaboration with appropriate state agencies, stakeholders, Mexican counterparts, and the International Boundary and Water Commission. This presentation/session will include scientists from both U.S. and Mexican organizations who have worked on the TAA scientific programs, development of binational agreements, and sharing of aquifer characteristics. This presentation will also discuss information exchange, policy and governance issues, and future research needs and plans.